Discussed herein are three subjects. First, devices and procedures for the therapeutic manipulation of target receptor molecules, target complex molecules, and target molecules in immune mediator related disease, and hepatic failure, and exogenous intoxication. Second, selected physiologic roles of albumin in health, immune mediator related disease, hepatic failure and exogenous intoxication, in particular effects of oncotic pressure and binding of physiologic or pathologic molecules. Third, the physiologic roles of soluble receptor and carrier molecules with respect to pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators (“IM”) in particular and toxins in general.
Medical Blood Filtration: Treatment of certain diseases by filtration of blood is well established medical practice. Dialysis, using dialysis filters, which remove molecules with molecular weights up to 5,000 to 10,000 Dalton, is used to treat chronic and some acute renal failure. Conventional hemofiltration, discussed below, is used to treat acute renal failure, and in some cases, chronic renal failure. Plasmapheresis, using plasma filters or centrifuge techniques which remove molecules with molecular weights of 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 Dalton or more, is used to treat diseases associated with high molecular weight pathologic immunoglobulins or immune complexes, (e.g., multiple myeloma, lupus vasculitis, etc.).
Conventional hemofilters are well known medical devices commonly used to filter the blood of a patient with acute renal failure, and in some cases, chronic renal failure. The hemofilter may be used either for convective or dialytic depuration of blood. Many hemofilters are on the market with various characteristics. However, conventionally they all share one major characteristic, which is a nominal or effective molecular weight cutoff of less than 69,000 Dalton—the molecular weight of albumin. Conventional hemofilters are generally designed to minimize or avoid sieving of albumin. The reason is that the removal of albumin in the application of renal failure treatment is of no benefit, and would be a deleterious side effect, because the oncotic pressure of plasma would be reduced and edema promoted. Albumin could be replaced, but would add cost and risk with no therapeutic benefit. Therefore, conventional hemofilters are designed to avoid sieving of albumin.
Plasmapheresis has the objective of sieving all plasma proteins, especially all classes of immunoglobulins and immune complexes. This requires a molecular weight cutoff of from 1 million to 5 million Dalton, or more. Plasmapheresis membranes are designed to reject only cellular elements of blood, and are the most extreme of the blood filtration techniques designed to produce an acellular filtrate.
Physiology of Albumin and Soluble Receptor and Carrier Molecules:
Serum albumin serves a number of vital functions, two of these are its oncotic function and its chemical binding and transport of both physiologic and pathologic molecules. Albumin provides 80% of the oncotic pressure of plasma. This oncotic pressure keeps plasma water within the blood-vascular space, preserving the plasma water component of the blood volume, and preventing tissue edema by drawing tissue fluid back into the plasma from tissue. Albumin normally is present in human plasma at a concentration of about 3.5 to 5.0 gm/100 ml. If albumin concentration declines, typically to a concentration of <2.5 gm/100 ml, then oncotic pressure drops below its critical level, and edema fluid accumulates in tissues, body cavities (e.g., ascites, pleural effusion), and in air spaces in the lung (e.g., pulmonary edema). This accumulation of edema fluid may result in vital organ dysfunction, increased susceptibility to infection, and hyper-coagulable states. Thus, depletion of albumin molecules to the extent that oncotic pressure is excessively reduced is to be avoided.
The chemical binding and transport functions of albumin are numerous. In most cases, potentially biologically active molecules in the blood circulation only have their biologic effects when they are free in suspension or solution in the plasma water. In this free state, the molecule is able to interact with its receptor(s) to bring about biologic effects. Such biologic actions may be agonistic or antagonistic. Binding of a potentially biologically active molecule to albumin or other carrier or soluble receptor molecule usually inactivates the molecule by preventing combination with its tissue receptor. In some instances, the binding functions are part of normal physiologic process. For example when albumin binds calcium or magnesium ions, it is a dynamic process that helps to preserve the proper concentration of ionized calcium in the plasma water. If ionized calcium drops, calcium is released from albumin to restore normal plasma water ionized calcium. In other instances, the binding function of albumin and other receptor molecules protects against disease causing molecules by participating in their inactivation and detoxification.
Another major function of albumin is its role in detoxification, in which it binds endogenous or exogenous toxins. In this role, albumin acts both to detoxify the toxin by binding and therefore inactivating it, and also as a carrier molecule, transporting the toxic molecule to the liver for chemical transformation (detoxification) and excretion, or to the kidney for excretion. Endogenous toxins arise from a great many pathologic bodily processes. During sepsis and septic shock, inflammatory mediators (“IM”) are produced in excess. At the site of local tissue injury or infection, IM serve the vital immune functions of removal and healing of injured or dead tissue, or resisting or destroying infecting organisms. When IM become excessive and spill over into the general circulation, they may become toxic to the body causing the systemic inflammatory response syndrome, with complicating multiorgan dysfunction syndrome and multiorgan system failure. These IM are carried in the plasma bound to albumin, bound to other receptor molecules, or free in plasma water. Binding by albumin and other receptor molecules moderates and ablates the effects of circulating IM. When the binding capacity is exceeded, the circulating IM become much more toxic and the moderating effects of albumin-carrier molecule binding are exceeded.
Other diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, pemphigoid vulgaris, multiple sclerosis, lupus, graft versus host disease and similar conditions, are similarly caused by excess circulating IM. These conditions generally result from an autoimmune process in which IM, either physiologic or pathologic, are dysfunctionally produced and are therefore toxic in any amount, or produced in dysfunctionally large and toxic quantities. Sepsis-septic shock and the autoimmune diseases, each resulting from dysfunctional or dysfunctionally abundant IM, may be referred to in aggregate as Inflammatory Mediator Related Disease (“IMRD”). Unless otherwise indicated, as used throughout this document, “or” does not require mutual exclusivity.
Liver failure is a complex disorder with an intricate pathophysiology and diverse effects on many vital organs. It is characterized by the accumulation in the body of many toxins that arise from body metabolic processes, which, under normal conditions, are quickly detoxified and eliminated by the liver, but which, in liver failure, accumulate in the body. The pathologic effects of liver failure are varied and include bleeding (failure of liver to produce clotting factors), infection (failure of liver to remove organisms translocated from the gut into the portal circulation), and the accumulation, as noted above, of various liver failure toxic substances which have been only partially characterized. The lethal effect of these liver failure toxic substances is hepatic coma with progressive cerebral edema and eventual brain stem herniation and death. Liver failure toxic substances are extensively bound by albumin. While several supportive therapies are in use to reduce these toxic substances and ameliorate the effects of hepatic failure, none have shown a clear or consistent benefit.
Exogenous toxin exposures such as suicide attempts, accidental toxin ingestions and environmental (industrial, agricultural, etc.) toxin exposures are of great diversity. The majority of these exogenous toxins are bound to albumin and other tissues, thus excretion by natural means (kidney elimination) or artificial means (dialysis) is severely limited. Therapy for nearly all these intoxications is supportive only. In most intoxications, which are mild or moderate, simple supportive care and allowing the body's own detoxification mechanisms time to work, is satisfactory. However, in severe intoxications, particularly with more dangerous chemicals (e.g., tricyclic antidepressants, aspirin, etc) removal by some extracorporeal means would be desirable. However, current methods are not adequate to overcome binding of exogenous toxins to albumin or tissue and remove them from the body.
Not all carrier molecules inhibit the function of the bound molecule. In some cases, biologic activity of the bound molecule is enhanced by binding to a carrier molecule. For example, lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin) stimulation of cyotkine production is enhanced by low levels of lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP). LBP is an acute phase carrier protein made by the liver.